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Phonetic Reading Epic of Gilgamesh [in Akkadian Pdf

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Sumerian ruler and protagonist of the Ballsy of Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh
𒀭𒄑𒉋𒂵𒈨𒌋𒌋𒌋
Hero lion Dur-Sharrukin Louvre AO19862.jpg

Possible representation of Gilgamesh as Chief of Animals, grasping a king of beasts in his left arm and snake in his correct hand, in an Assyrian palace relief (713–706 BC), from Dur-Sharrukin, now held in the Louvre[i]

Reign c. 2900-2700 BC (EDI)[2] [3] [iv] [5] [6]
Predecessor Dumuzid, the Fisherman (every bit Ensi of Uruk)
Successor Ur-Nungal

Gilgamesh (Akkadian: 𒀭𒄑𒂆𒈦, romanized: Gilgameš ; originally Sumerian: 𒀭𒉋𒂵𒈩, romanized: Bilgames )[seven] [a] was a hero in ancient Mesopotamian mythology and the protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an ballsy poem written in Akkadian during the late 2nd millennium BC. He was possibly a historical king of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, who was posthumously deified. His rule probably would have taken place sometime in the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) (henceforth ED), c. 2900 – 2350 BC, though he became a major figure in Sumerian fable during the Tertiary Dynasty of Ur (c.  2112 – c. 2004 BC).

Tales of Gilgamesh's legendary exploits are narrated in five surviving Sumerian poems. The earliest of these is probable "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld",[12] in which Gilgamesh comes to the help of the goddess Inanna and drives abroad the creatures infesting her huluppu tree. She gives him 2 unknown objects, a mikku and a pikku, which he loses. After Enkidu'southward death, his shade tells Gilgamesh about the bleak conditions in the Underworld. The verse form Gilgamesh and Aga describes Gilgamesh's revolt against his overlord Aga of Kish. Other Sumerian poems relate Gilgamesh's defeat of the giant Huwawa and the Bull of Heaven, while a fifth, poorly preserved poem relates the account of his decease and funeral.

In later Babylonian times, these stories were woven into a connected narrative. The standard Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh was composed past a scribe named Sîn-lēqi-unninni, probably during the Middle Babylonian Menses (c.  1600 – c. 1155 BC), based on much older source cloth. In the epic, Gilgamesh is a demigod of superhuman strength who befriends the wild homo Enkidu. Together, they commence on many journeys, most famously defeating Humbaba (Sumerian: Huwawa) and the Bull of Sky, who is sent to attack them by Ishtar (Sumerian: Inanna) subsequently Gilgamesh rejects her offer for him to become her consort. Later on Enkidu dies of a disease sent as punishment from the gods, Gilgamesh becomes afraid of his death and visits the sage Utnapishtim, the survivor of the Not bad Flood, hoping to find immortality. Gilgamesh repeatedly fails the trials set earlier him and returns home to Uruk, realizing that immortality is beyond his reach.

Well-nigh classical historians concur the Epic of Gilgamesh exerted substantial influence on the Iliad and the Odyssey, 2 epic poems written in ancient Greek during the 8th century BC. The story of Gilgamesh'south birth is described in an anecdote from On the Nature of Animals by the Greek writer Aelian (2nd century AD). Aelian relates that Gilgamesh'south granddad kept his mother under guard to foreclose her from becoming significant, because an oracle had told him that his grandson would overthrow him. She became pregnant and the guards threw the child off a belfry, just an eagle rescued him mid-fall and delivered him safely to an orchard, where the gardener raised him.

The Epic of Gilgamesh was rediscovered in the Library of Ashurbanipal in 1849. After being translated in the early 1870s, information technology caused widespread controversy due to similarities between portions of it and the Hebrew Bible. Gilgamesh remained by and large obscure until the mid-20th century, but, since the belatedly 20th century, he has become an increasingly prominent figure in modernistic culture.

Name [edit]

The mod grade "Gilgamesh" is a direct borrowing of the Akkadian 𒄑𒂆𒈦, rendered as Gilgameš. The Assyrian class of the name derived from the earlier Sumerian form 𒉋𒂵𒈩, Bilgames. It is generally ended that the name itself translates as "the (kinsman) is a hero", the relation of the "kinsman" varying between the source giving the translation. It is sometimes suggested that the Sumerian form of the proper name was pronounced Pabilgames, reading the component bilga every bit pabilga (𒉺𒉋𒂵), a related term which described familial relations, however, this is not supported past epigraphic or phonological prove.[thirteen]

Historical king [edit]

Seal impression of "Mesannepada, king of Kish", excavated in the Royal Cemetery at Ur (U. 13607), dated circa 2600 BC.[14] [15] The seal shows Gilgamesh and the mythical balderdash between two lions, ane of the lions biting him in the shoulder. On each side of this grouping appears Enkidu and a hunter-hero, with a long beard and a Kish-style headdress, armed with a dagger. Nether the text, 4 runners with beard and long hair grade a human Swastika. They are armed with daggers and grab each other's pes.[15]

Almost historians generally hold Gilgamesh was a historical male monarch of the Sumerian urban center-state of Uruk,[16] [17] [eighteen] [19] who probably ruled old during the early office of the Early on Dynastic Menses (c. 2900 – 2350 BC).[sixteen] [17] Stephanie Dalley, a scholar of the ancient Near East, states that "precise dates cannot be given for the lifetime of Gilgamesh, simply they are by and large agreed to lie between 2800 and 2500 BC".[17] An inscription, possibly belonging to a contemporary official nether Gilgamesh, was discovered in the archaic texts at Ur;[20] his proper noun reads: "Gilgameš is the one whom Utu has selected". Aside from this the Tummal Inscription, a thirty-iv-line historiographic text written during the reign of Ishbi-Erra (c.  1953 – c. 1920 BC), also mentions him.[18] The inscription credits Gilgamesh with building the walls of Uruk.[21] Lines eleven through fifteen of the inscription read:

For a second time, the Tummal fell into ruin,
Gilgamesh built the Numunburra of the House of Enlil.
Ur-lugal, the son of Gilgamesh,
Fabricated the Tummal pre-eminent,
Brought Ninlil to the Tummal.[22]

Gilgamesh is too connected to Rex Enmebaragesi of Kish, a known historical effigy who may accept lived nigh Gilgamesh'due south lifetime.[21] Furthermore, he is listed as one of the kings of Uruk by the Sumerian King List.[21] Fragments of an epic text found in Mê-Turan (modern Tell Haddad) relate that at the end of his life Gilgamesh was buried under the river bed.[21] The people of Uruk diverted the flow of the Euphrates passing Uruk for the purpose of burying the expressionless king within the river bed.[23] [21]

Deification and legendary exploits [edit]

Sumerian poems [edit]

Mace dedicated to Gilgamesh, with transcription of the name Gilgamesh (𒀭𒉈𒂵𒈩) in standard Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform, Ur Three period, between 2112 and 2004 BC

It is sure that, during the later Early Dynastic Menstruum, Gilgamesh was worshiped as a god at various locations across Sumer.[16] In 21st century BC, King Utu-hengal of Uruk adopted Gilgamesh every bit his patron deity.[sixteen] The kings of the Tertiary Dynasty of Ur (c.  2112 – c. 2004 BC) were especially addicted of Gilgamesh,[sixteen] [21] calling him their "divine brother" and "friend."[sixteen] King Shulgi of Ur (2029–1982 BC) declared himself the son of Lugalbanda and Ninsun and the blood brother of Gilgamesh.[21] Over the centuries, there may take been a gradual accretion of stories about Gilgamesh, some possibly derived from the real lives of other historical figures, such as Gudea, the Second Dynasty ruler of Lagash (2144–2124 BC).[24] Prayers inscribed in clay tablets address Gilgamesh every bit a gauge of the dead in the Underworld.[21]

"Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld" [edit]

During this catamenia, a large number of myths and legends developed surrounding Gilgamesh.[sixteen] [25] [26] [27] : 95 V independent Sumerian poems narrating various exploits of Gilgamesh have survived to the nowadays.[16] Gilgamesh's get-go appearance in literature is probably in the Sumerian verse form "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld".[28] [21] [29] The narrative begins with a huluppu tree—perhaps, co-ordinate to the Sumerologist Samuel Noah Kramer, a willow,[30] growing on the banks of the river Euphrates.[xxx] [21] [31] The goddess Inanna moves the tree to her garden in Uruk with the intention to cleave it into a throne once it is fully grown.[30] [21] [31] The tree grows and matures, merely the serpent "who knows no charm," the Anzû-bird, and Lilitu, a Mesopotamian demon, all take upward residence within the tree, causing Inanna to weep with sorrow.[thirty] [21] [31]

Gilgamesh, who in this story is portrayed as Inanna's brother, comes forth and slays the serpent, causing the Anzû-bird and Lilitu to flee.[32] [21] [31] Gilgamesh's companions chop downward the tree and cleave its woods into a bed and a throne, which they requite to Inanna.[33] [21] [31] Inanna responds by fashioning a pikku and a mikku (probably a drum and drumsticks respectively, although the exact identifications are uncertain),[34] [21] which she gives to Gilgamesh as a reward for his heroism.[35] [21] [31] Gilgamesh loses the pikku and mikku and asks who will call back them.[36] Enkidu descends to the Underworld to find them,[37] but disobeys the strict laws of the Underworld and is therefore required to remain there forever.[37] The remaining portion of the poem is a dialogue in which Gilgamesh asks the shade of Enkidu questions about the Underworld.[16] [36]

Subsequent poems [edit]

"Gilgamesh and Agga" describes Gilgamesh's successful revolt against his overlord Agga, the king of the city-land of Kish.[16] [38] "Gilgamesh and Huwawa" describes how Gilgamesh and his servant Enkidu, aided by the help of fifty volunteers from Uruk, defeat the monster Huwawa, an ogre appointed by the god Enlil, the ruler of the gods, as the guardian of the Cedar Woods.[16] [39] [40] In "Gilgamesh and the Balderdash of Sky", Gilgamesh and Enkidu slay the Bull of Heaven, who has been sent to attack them past the goddess Inanna.[16] [41] [42] The plot of this poem differs substantially from the respective scene in the later Akkadian Ballsy of Gilgamesh.[43] In the Sumerian verse form, Inanna does not seem to enquire Gilgamesh to become her espoused equally she does in the afterwards Akkadian ballsy.[41] Furthermore, while she is coercing her male parent An to give her the Bull of Sky, rather than threatening to raise the dead to consume the living as she does in the later epic, she merely threatens to let out a "cry" that will accomplish the earth.[43] A poem known as the "Death of Gilgamesh" is poorly preserved,[xvi] [44] but appears to describe a major state funeral followed past the inflow of the deceased in the Underworld.[16] It is possible that the modern scholars who gave the poem its championship may have misinterpreted it,[16] and the poem may actually be nearly the decease of Enkidu.[16]

Epic of Gilgamesh [edit]

Ancient Mesopotamian terracotta relief (c. 2250 — 1900 BC) showing Gilgamesh slaying the Bull of Heaven,[47] an episode described in Tablet Vi of the Epic of Gilgamesh [46] [48]

Somewhen, according to Kramer (1963):[25]

Gilgamesh became the hero par excellence of the ancient world—an adventurous, brave, simply tragic figure symbolizing man'due south vain just countless drive for fame, celebrity, and immortality.

By the Sometime Babylonian Flow (c.  1830 – c. 1531 BC), stories of Gilgamesh's legendary exploits had been woven into one or several long epics.[sixteen] The Epic of Gilgamesh, the most consummate account of Gilgamesh's adventures, was composed in Akkadian during the Eye Babylonian Period (c. 1600 – c. 1155 BC) by a scribe named Sîn-lēqi-unninni.[sixteen] The most complete surviving version of the Epic of Gilgamesh is recorded on a set of twelve clay tablets dating to the seventh century BC, found in the Library of Ashurbanipal in the Assyrian capital of Nineveh.[16] [21] [49] The epic survives simply in a fragmentary form, with many pieces of it missing or damaged.[xvi] [21] [49] Some scholars and translators choose to supplement the missing parts of the epic with fabric from the earlier Sumerian poems or from other versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh found at other sites throughout the Near Eastward.[16]

In the epic, Gilgamesh is introduced as "2 thirds divine and one 3rd mortal."[50] At the beginning of the poem, Gilgamesh is described every bit a brutal, oppressive ruler.[16] [50] This is usually interpreted to hateful either that he compels all his subjects to engage in forced labor[16] or that he sexually oppresses all his subjects.[16] As penalisation for Gilgamesh's cruelty, the god Anu creates the wild man Enkidu.[51] After being tamed by a prostitute named Shamhat, Enkidu travels to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh.[46] In the second tablet, the two men wrestle and, although Gilgamesh wins the match in the finish,[46] he is so impressed by his opponent's forcefulness and tenacity that they get close friends.[46] In the earlier Sumerian texts, Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant,[46] but, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, they are companions of equal standing.[46]

In tablets Three through 4, Gilgamesh and Enkidu travel to the Cedar Forest, which is guarded past Humbaba (the Akkadian proper name for Huwawa).[46] The heroes cross the seven mountains to the Cedar Forest, where they begin chopping downwards copse.[52] Confronted by Humbaba, Gilgamesh panics and prays to Shamash (the East Semitic name for Utu),[52] who blows viii winds in Humbaba'south eyes, blinding him.[52] Humbaba begs for mercy, simply the heroes decapitate him regardless.[52] Tablet 6 begins with Gilgamesh returning to Uruk,[46] where Ishtar (the Akkadian name for Inanna) comes to him and demands him to go her espoused.[46] [52] [53] Gilgamesh repudiates her, insisting that she has mistreated all her quondam lovers.[46] [52] [53]

In revenge, Ishtar goes to her father Anu and demands that he give her the Bull of Sky,[54] [55] [43] which she sends to attack Gilgamesh.[46] [54] [55] [43] Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill the Bull and offering its heart to Shamash.[56] [55] While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are resting, Ishtar stands up on the walls of Uruk and curses Gilgamesh.[56] [57] Enkidu tears off the Balderdash'southward right thigh and throws it in Ishtar'due south confront,[56] [57] maxim, "If I could lay my hands on you, it is this I should do to y'all, and lash your entrails to your side."[58] [57] Ishtar calls together "the crimped courtesans, prostitutes and harlots"[56] and orders them to mourn for the Bull of Heaven.[56] [57] Meanwhile, Gilgamesh holds a celebration over the Bull of Sky's defeat.[59] [57]

Tablet VII begins with Enkidu recounting a dream in which he saw Anu, Ea, and Shamash declare either Gilgamesh or Enkidu must dice as punishment for having slain the Bull of Heaven.[46] They choose Enkidu and Enkidu presently grows ill.[46] He has a dream of the Underworld, and then he dies.[46] Tablet Viii describes Gilgamesh'south comfortless grief over his friend's decease[46] [60] and the details of Enkidu's funeral.[46] Tablets 9 through Eleven chronicle how Gilgamesh, driven by grief and fright of his own mortality, travels a bang-up distance and overcomes many obstacles to discover the dwelling of Utnapishtim, the sole survivor of the Great Flood, who was rewarded with immortality by the gods.[46] [threescore]

The journeying to Utnapishtim involves a series of episodic challenges, which probably originated as major independent adventures,[60] but, in the ballsy, they are reduced to what Joseph Eddy Fontenrose calls "fairly harmless incidents."[lx] First, Gilgamesh encounters and slays lions in the mountain pass.[60] Upon reaching the mountain of Mashu, Gilgamesh encounters a scorpion human being and his wife;[60] their bodies wink with terrifying radiance,[60] but, once Gilgamesh tells them his purpose, they allow him to pass.[60] Gilgamesh wanders through darkness for twelve days before he finally comes into the calorie-free.[60] He finds a beautiful garden past the sea in which he meets Siduri, the divine Alewife.[lx] At first, she tries to prevent Gilgamesh from entering the garden,[60] simply later she instead attempts to persuade him to have death equally inevitable and non journeying beyond the waters.[60] When Gilgamesh refuses to do this, she directs him to Urshanabi, the ferryman of the gods, who ferries Gilgamesh across the sea to Utnapishtim's homeland.[lx] When Gilgamesh finally arrives at Utnapishtim'south home, Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that, to get immortal, he must defy sleep.[46] Gilgamesh fails to practise this and falls asleep for seven days without waking.[46]

Next, Utnapishtim tells him that, fifty-fifty if he cannot obtain immortality, he can restore his youth using a plant with the power of rejuvenation.[46] [31] Gilgamesh takes the plant, but leaves it on the shore while swimming and a snake steals it, explaining why snakes are able to shed their skins.[46] [31] Despondent at this loss, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk,[46] and shows his metropolis to the ferryman Urshanabi.[46] Information technology is at this point the epic stops being a coherent narrative.[46] [31] [61] Tablet XII is an appendix corresponding to the Sumerian poem of Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld describing the loss of the pikku and mikku.[46] [31] [61]

Numerous elements inside this narrative reveal lack of continuity with the before portions of the epic.[61] At the first of Tablet XII, Enkidu is even so alive, despite having previously died in Tablet Seven,[61] and Gilgamesh is kind to Ishtar, despite the trigger-happy rivalry between them displayed in Tablet Vi.[61] Also, while most of the parts of the epic are free adaptations of their respective Sumerian predecessors,[62] Tablet XII is a literal, word-for-word translation of the final function of Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld.[62] For these reasons, scholars conclude this narrative was probably relegated to the end of the epic because it did not fit the larger narrative.[46] [31] [61] In it, Gilgamesh sees a vision of Enkidu'due south ghost, who promises to recover the lost items[46] [36] and describes to his friend the abysmal condition of the Underworld.[46] [36]

In Mesopotamian art [edit]

Although stories nearly Gilgamesh were wildly popular throughout ancient Mesopotamia,[63] accurate representations of him in ancient art are uncommon.[63] Pop works often identify depictions of a hero with long hair, containing four or six curls, as representations of Gilgamesh,[63] but this identification is known to be incorrect.[63] A few genuine aboriginal Mesopotamian representations of Gilgamesh do exist, nevertheless.[63] These representations are by and large found on clay plaques and cylinder seals.[63] Generally, information technology is merely possible to identify a figure shown in art equally Gilgamesh if the artistic work in question clearly depicts a scene from the Epic of Gilgamesh itself.[63] One set of representations of Gilgamesh is found in scenes of two heroes fighting a demonic giant, certainly Humbaba.[63] Another gear up is found in scenes showing a like pair of heroes confronting a giant, winged balderdash, certainly the Bull of Heaven.[63]

Later influence [edit]

In artifact [edit]

The episode involving Odysseus's confrontation with Polyphemus in the Odyssey, shown in this seventeenth-century painting by Guido Reni, bears similarities to Gilgamesh and Enkidu'southward battle with Humbaba in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[64]

The Epic of Gilgamesh exerted substantial influence on the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems written in ancient Greek during the eighth century BC.[67] [64] [68] [69] According to Barry B. Powell, an American classical scholar, early Greeks were probably exposed to Mesopotamian oral traditions through their all-encompassing connections to the civilizations of the ancient Almost East[nineteen] and this exposure resulted in the similarities that are seen betwixt the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Homeric epics.[xix] Walter Burkert, a German classicist, observes that the scene in Tablet 6 of the Epic of Gilgamesh in which Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar's advances and she complains before her mother Antu, but is mildly rebuked by her father Anu, is directly paralleled in Book 5 of the Iliad.[70] In this scene, Aphrodite, the later Greek adaptation of Ishtar, is wounded by the hero Diomedes and flees to Mount Olympus, where she cries to her mother Dione and is mildly rebuked by her father Zeus.[seventy]

Powell observes the opening lines of the Odyssey seem to echo the opening lines of the Epic of Gilgamesh.[fifty] The storyline of the Odyssey likewise bears many similarities to the Epic of Gilgamesh.[71] [72] Both Gilgamesh and Odysseus run into a woman who can plow men into animals: Ishtar (for Gilgamesh) and Circe (for Odysseus).[71] In the Odyssey, Odysseus blinds a giant Cyclops named Polyphemus,[64] an incident which bears similarities to Gilgamesh's slaying of Humbaba in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[64] Both Gilgamesh and Odysseus visit the Underworld[71] and both observe themselves unhappy whilst living in an otherworldly paradise in the presence of an bonny woman: Siduri (for Gilgamesh) and Calypso (for Odysseus).[71] Finally, both heroes have an opportunity for immortality merely miss information technology (Gilgamesh when he loses the plant, and Odysseus when he leaves Calypso'south island).[71]

In the Qumran scroll known as Book of Giants (c. 100 BC) the names of Gilgamesh and Humbaba announced as 2 of the stick-in-the-mud giants,[73] [74] rendered (in consonantal form) as glgmš and ḩwbbyš. This aforementioned text was later used in the Eye E by the Manichaean sects, and the Arabic form Gilgamish/Jiljamish survives equally the proper name of a demon according to the Egyptian cleric Al-Suyuti (c. 1500).[73]

The story of Gilgamesh's birth is not recorded in whatever extant Sumerian or Akkadian text,[63] but a version of it is described in De Natura Animalium (On the Nature of Animals) 12.21, a commonplace book which was written in Greek sometime around 200 AD by the Hellenized Roman orator Aelian.[75] [63] According to Aelian's story, an oracle told King Seuechoros (Σευεχορος) of the Babylonians that his grandson Gilgamos would overthrow him.[63] To prevent this, Seuechoros kept his only daughter under close guard at the Acropolis of the metropolis of Babylon,[63] merely she became pregnant still.[63] Fearing the king's wrath, the guards hurled the infant off the top of a tall belfry.[63] An hawkeye rescued the male child in mid-flying and carried him to an orchard, where it advisedly set him downwards.[63] The flagman of the orchard found the male child and raised him, naming him Gilgamos (Γίλγαμος).[63] Eventually, Gilgamos returned to Babylon and overthrew his grandad, proclaiming himself king.[63] The nativity narrative described by Aelian is in the same tradition as other Well-nigh Eastern nascency legends,[63] such every bit those of Sargon, Moses, and Cyrus.[63] Theodore Bar Konai (c. Advertising 600), writing in Syriac, likewise mentions a king Gligmos, Gmigmos or Gamigos as last of a line of twelve kings who were contemporaneous with the patriarchs from Peleg to Abraham; this occurrence is also considered a vestige of Gilgamesh'due south erstwhile memory.[76] [77]

Modern rediscovery [edit]

In 1880, the English Assyriologist George Smith (left) published a translation of Tablet Xi of the Epic of Gilgamesh (right), containing the Flood myth,[78] which attracted firsthand scholarly attention and controversy due to its similarity to the Genesis flood narrative.[79]

The Akkadian text of the Epic of Gilgamesh was get-go discovered in 1849 AD by the English language archeologist Austen Henry Layard in the Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh.[21] [49] [27] : 95 Layard was seeking evidence to confirm the historicity of the events described in the Hebrew Bible, i.e. the Christian Old Testament,[21] which, at the time, was believed to comprise the oldest texts in the world.[21] Instead, his excavations and those of others after him revealed the existence of much older Mesopotamian texts[21] and showed that many of the stories in the Old Attestation may actually exist derived from before myths told throughout the ancient Nearly East.[21] The first translation of the Ballsy of Gilgamesh was produced in the early 1870s by George Smith, a scholar at the British Museum,[78] [lxxx] [81] who published the Overflowing story from Tablet XI in 1880 nether the title The Chaldean Account of Genesis.[78] Gilgamesh's name was originally misread as Izdubar.[78] [82] [83]

Early interest in the Epic of Gilgamesh was nearly exclusively on account of the inundation story from Tablet Xi.[84] The alluvion story attracted enormous public attending and drew widespread scholarly controversy, while the rest of the epic was largely ignored.[84] Most attention towards the Ballsy of Gilgamesh in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries came from German-speaking countries,[85] where controversy raged over the relationship betwixt Babel und Bibel ("Babylon and Bible").[86]

In Jan 1902, the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin in front of the Kaiser and his wife, in which he argued that the Flood story in the Book of Genesis was directly copied from the 1 in the Ballsy of Gilgamesh.[84] Delitzsch'due south lecture was then controversial that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect one,350 short articles from newspapers and journals, over 300 longer ones, and 20-eight pamphlets, all written in response to this lecture, likewise as another lecture almost the relationship between the Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah.[87] These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch.[87] The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views[87] and, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to give his third lecture in Cologne and Frankfurt am Main rather than in Berlin.[87] The putative human relationship betwixt the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Hebrew Bible subsequently became a major role of Delitzsch'south statement in his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great Charade) that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably "contaminated" by Babylonian influence[84] and that just by eliminating the human being Former Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true, Aryan message of the New Testament.[84]

Early modern interpretations [edit]

Illustration of Izdubar (Gilgamesh) in a scene from the book-length verse form Ishtar and Izdubar (1884) past Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, the start modern literary adaptation of the Ballsy of Gilgamesh [88]

The outset mod literary accommodation of the Ballsy of Gilgamesh was Ishtar and Izdubar (1884) past Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, an American lawyer and man of affairs.[88] Hamilton had rudimentary noesis of Akkadian, which he had learned from Archibald Sayce's 1872 Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes.[89] Hamilton'southward volume relied heavily on Smith's translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh,[89] simply also made major changes.[89] For instance, Hamilton omitted the famous flood story entirely[89] and instead focused on the romantic relationship between Ishtar and Gilgamesh.[89] Ishtar and Izdubar expanded the original roughly 3,000 lines of the Epic of Gilgamesh to roughly six,000 lines of rhyming couplets grouped into forty-eight cantos.[89] Hamilton significantly altered nigh of the characters and introduced entirely new episodes not found in the original epic.[89] Significantly influenced past Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Edwin Arnold'south The Light of Asia,[89] Hamilton's characters dress more similar nineteenth-century Turks than ancient Babylonians.[xc] Hamilton also changed the tone of the epic from the "grim realism" and "ironic tragedy" of the original to a "cheery optimism" filled with "the sweet strains of dearest and harmony".[91]

In his 1904 book Das Alte Testament im Lichte des alten Orients, the High german Assyriologist Alfred Jeremias equated Gilgamesh with the rex Nimrod from the Book of Genesis[92] and argued Gilgamesh's strength must come up from his hair, like the hero Samson in the Book of Judges,[92] and that he must accept performed Twelve Labors like the hero Heracles in Greek mythology.[92] In his 1906 volume Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der Weltliteratur, the Orientalist Peter Jensen declared that the Ballsy of Gilgamesh was the source behind nearly all the stories in the One-time Attestation,[92] arguing that Moses is "the Gilgamesh of Exodus who saves the children of State of israel from precisely the same situation faced by the inhabitants of Erech at the beginning of the Babylonian ballsy."[92] He then proceeded to argue that Abraham, Isaac, Samson, David, and various other biblical figures are all nothing more exact copies of Gilgamesh.[92] Finally, he declared that even Jesus is "nil simply an Israelite Gilgamesh. Naught simply an adjunct to Abraham, Moses, and countless other figures in the saga."[92] This ideology became known every bit Panbabylonianism[93] and was almost immediately rejected by mainstream scholars.[93] The well-nigh stalwart critics of Panbabylonianism were those associated with the emerging Religionsgeschichtliche Schule.[94] Hermann Gunkel dismissed most of Jensen'southward purported parallels between Gilgamesh and biblical figures equally mere baseless sensationalism.[94] He concluded that Jensen and other Assyriologists like him had failed to sympathise the complexities of Old Testament scholarship[93] and had confused scholars with "conspicuous mistakes and remarkable aberrations".[93]

In English-speaking countries, the prevailing scholarly interpretation during the early twentieth century was one originally proposed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet,[95] which held that Gilgamesh is a "solar hero", whose deportment stand for the movements of the lord's day,[95] and that the twelve tablets of his epic represent the twelve signs of the Babylonian zodiac.[95] The Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, drawing on the theories of James George Frazer and Paul Ehrenreich, interpreted Gilgamesh and Eabani (the before misreading for Enkidu) equally representing "man" and "crude sensuality" respectively.[96] [97] He compared them to other brother-figures in world mythology,[97] remarking, "One is ever weaker than the other and dies sooner. In Gilgamesh this ages-old motif of the unequal pair of brothers served to correspond the relationship between a homo and his libido."[97] He besides saw Enkidu as representing the placenta, the "weaker twin" who dies shortly afterward birth.[98] Freud's friend and educatee Carl Jung frequently discusses Gilgamesh in his early work Symbole der Wandlung (1911–1912).[99] He, for instance, cites Ishtar'south sexual attraction to Gilgamesh equally an instance of the mother'due south incestuous desire for her son,[99] Humbaba every bit an instance of an oppressive father-figure whom Gilgamesh must overcome,[99] and Gilgamesh himself equally an case of a man who forgets his dependence on the unconscious and is punished by the "gods", who represent information technology.[99]

Mod interpretations and cultural significance [edit]

In the years post-obit World War II, Gilgamesh, formerly an obscure figure known merely past a few scholars, gradually became increasingly pop with mod audiences.[100] [81] The Ballsy of Gilgamesh 's existential themes made it especially appealing to German authors in the years post-obit the war.[81] In his 1947 existentialist novel Dice Stadt hinter dem Strom, the German novelist Hermann Kasack adapted elements of the epic into a metaphor for the aftermath of the destruction of World War Ii in Germany,[81] portraying the bombed-out city of Hamburg equally resembling the frightening Underworld seen by Enkidu in his dream.[81] In Hans Henny Jahnn'southward magnum opus River Without Shores (1949–1950), the centre section of the trilogy centers around a composer whose xx-year-long homoerotic relationship with a friend mirrors that of Gilgamesh with Enkidu[81] and whose masterpiece turns out to exist a symphony about Gilgamesh.[81]

The Quest of Gilgamesh, a 1953 radio play by Douglas Geoffrey Bridson, helped popularize the epic in Britain.[81] In the U.s.a., Charles Olson praised the epic in his poems and essays[81] and Gregory Corso believed that it independent aboriginal virtues capable of curing what he viewed as modern moral degeneracy.[81] The 1966 postfigurative novel Gilgamesch by Guido Bachmann became a archetype of German "queer literature"[81] and prepare a decades-long international literary tendency of portraying Gilgamesh and Enkidu equally homosexual lovers.[81] This trend proved so pop that the Epic of Gilgamesh itself is included in The Columbia Album of Gay Literature (1998) as a major early on work of that genre.[81] In the 1970s and 1980s, feminist literary critics analyzed the Epic of Gilgamesh as showing evidence for a transition from the original matriarchy of all humanity to modern patriarchy.[81] As the Green Movement expanded in Europe, Gilgamesh'south story began to exist seen through an environmentalist lens,[81] with Enkidu's death symbolizing human being'due south separation from nature.[81]

Theodore Ziolkowski, a scholar of modern literature, states, that "different most other figures from myth, literature, and history, Gilgamesh has established himself as an autonomous entity or simply a proper name, frequently independent of the epic context in which he originally became known. (As analogous examples ane might think, for case, of the Minotaur or Frankenstein'due south monster.)"[102] The Epic of Gilgamesh has been translated into many major world languages[103] and has become a staple of American globe literature classes.[104] Many gimmicky authors and novelists have fatigued inspiration from it, including an American avant-garde theater collective called "The Gilgamesh Group"[105] and Joan London in her novel Gilgamesh (2001).[105] [81] The Corking American Novel (1973) by Philip Roth features a character named "Gil Gamesh",[105] who is the star pitcher of a fictional 1930s baseball team called the "Patriot League".[105]

Starting in the late twentieth century, the Epic of Gilgamesh began to be read again in Republic of iraq.[103] Saddam Hussein, the one-time President of Republic of iraq, had a lifelong fascination with Gilgamesh.[106] Hussein'due south first novel Zabibah and the King (2000) is an allegory for the Gulf War prepare in ancient Assyria that blends elements of the Epic of Gilgamesh and the One G and 1 Nights.[107] Like Gilgamesh, the king at the beginning of the novel is a brutal tyrant who misuses his ability and oppresses his people,[108] but, through the assist of a commoner adult female named Zabibah, he grows into a more just ruler.[109] When the U.s.a. pressured Hussein to step down in Feb 2003, Hussein gave a speech to a group of his generals posing the idea in a positive light by comparing himself to the epic hero.[103]

Scholars like Susan Ackerman and Wayne R. Dynes accept noted that the language used to describe Gilgamesh'south relationship with Enkidu seems to take homoerotic implications.[110] [111] [112] Ackerman notes that, when Gilgamesh veils Enkidu's body, Enkidu is compared to a "bride".[110] Ackerman states, "that Gilgamesh, according to both versions, will love Enkidu 'similar a wife' may further imply sexual intercourse."[110]

In 2000, a modern statue of Gilgamesh by the Assyrian sculptor Lewis Batros was unveiled at the University of Sydney in Australia.[101]

See too [edit]

  • Atra-Hasis
  • Ziusudra
  • Enûma Eliš
  • Gilgamesh: A New English Version

References [edit]

Informational notes [edit]

  1. ^ ,[8] )[9] 𒄑𒂅𒈦, Gilgameš, originally Bilgames (Sumerian: 𒀭𒉋𒂵𒈩). His name translates roughly every bit "The Ancestor is a Young-human being",[ten] from Bil.ga "Antecedent", Elder[11] : 33 and Mes/Mesh3 "Young-Man".[eleven] : 174 Come across also The Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Lexicon.

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ Delorme 1981, p. 55.
  2. ^ George, A.R. (2003). The Ballsy of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Verse form and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian. Penguin Books. p. lxi. ISBN9780140449198.
  3. ^ Isakhan, Benjamin (13 May 2016). Democracy in Iraq: History, Politics, Discourse. Taylor & Francis. p. 200. ISBN9781317153092.
  4. ^ Marchesi, Gianni (2004). "Who Was Buried in the Royal Tombs of Ur? The Epigraphic and Textual Data". Orientalia. 73 (2): 197.
  5. ^ Pournelle, Jennifer (2003). Marshland of Cities:Deltaic Landscapes and the Evolution of Early Mesopotamian Civilization. San Diego. p. 268.
  6. ^ "Pre-dynastic architecture (UA1 and UA2)". Artefacts.
  7. ^ The Babylonian Gilgamesh ballsy : introduction, disquisitional edition and cuneiform texts. A. R. George. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2003. pp. 71–77. ISBN0-19-814922-0. OCLC 51668477. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  8. ^ "Gilgamesh". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  9. ^ George, Andrew R. (2010) [2003]. The Babylonian Gilgamesh Ballsy – Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts (in English and Akkadian). Vol. one and ii (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN978-0198149224. OCLC 819941336.
  10. ^ Hayes, J.L. A Manual of Sumerian Grammer and Texts (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
  11. ^ a b Halloran, J. Sum.Lexicon.
  12. ^ "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the under world: translation". etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk . Retrieved 18 March 2021.
  13. ^ Gonzalo Rubio. "READING SUMERIAN NAMES, II: GILGAMEŠ." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 64, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2012, pp. three–sixteen, https://doi.org/10.5615/jcunestud.64.0003.
  14. ^ Hall, H. R. (Harry Reginald); Woolley, Leonard; Legrain, Leon (1900). Ur excavations. Trustees of the Two Museums by the aid of a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. p. 312.
  15. ^ a b Epitome of a Mesanepada seal in: Legrain, Léon (1936). UR EXCAVATIONS VOLUME III ARCHAIC SEAL-IMPRESSIONS (PDF). THE TRUSTEES OF THE Two MUSEUMS By THE AID OF A GRANT FROM THE CARNEGIE CORPORATION OF NEW YORK. p. 44 seal 518 for description, Plate 30, seal 518 for paradigm.
  16. ^ a b c d e f 1000 h i j k 50 one thousand n o p q r due south t u 5 w x Black & Green 1992, p. 89.
  17. ^ a b c Dalley 1989, p. 40.
  18. ^ a b Kramer 1963, pp. 45–46.
  19. ^ a b c Powell 2012, p. 338.
  20. ^ Marchesi, Gianni (2004). "Who Was Buried in the Purple Tombs of Ur? The Epigraphic and Textual Data". Orientalia. 73 (2): 153–197. ISSN 0030-5367. JSTOR 43076896.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k 50 m n o p q r south t u v w Mark 2018.
  22. ^ Kramer 1963, p. 46.
  23. ^ "Gilgamesh tomb believed found". BBC News. 29 Apr 2003. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
  24. ^ Sandars, Due north.K. (1972). "Introduction". The Epic of Gilgamesh. Penguin.
  25. ^ a b Kramer 1963, p. 45.
  26. ^ George 2003b, p. 141.
  27. ^ a b The Norton Anthology of World Literature. Vol. A (3rd ed.). Westward. Westward. Norton & Visitor. 2012.
  28. ^ Kramer 1961, p. thirty.
  29. ^ ETCSL 1.8.1.4
  30. ^ a b c d Kramer 1961, p. 33.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i j chiliad Fontenrose 1980, p. 172.
  32. ^ Kramer 1961, pp. 33–34.
  33. ^ Wolkstein & Kramer 1983, p. 140.
  34. ^ Kramer 1961, p. 34.
  35. ^ Wolkstein & Kramer 1983, p. nine.
  36. ^ a b c d Fontenrose 1980, pp. 172–173.
  37. ^ a b Fontenrose 1980, p. 173.
  38. ^ ETCSL 1.8.i.1
  39. ^ Fontenrose 1980, p. 167.
  40. ^ ETCSL 1.8.1.v
  41. ^ a b Tigay 2002, p. 24.
  42. ^ ETCSL 1.8.1.two
  43. ^ a b c d Tigay 2002, pp. 24–25.
  44. ^ ETCSL one.viii.i.three
  45. ^ Black & Green 1992, p. 109.
  46. ^ a b c d e f one thousand h i j grand fifty m n o p q r s t u five w x y z aa ab ac Blackness & Green 1992, p. ninety.
  47. ^ Powell 2012, p. 342.
  48. ^ Powell 2012, pp. 341–343.
  49. ^ a b c Rybka 2011, pp. 257–258.
  50. ^ a b c Powell 2012, p. 339.
  51. ^ Black & Greenish 1992, pp. 89–90.
  52. ^ a b c d e f Fontenrose 1980, p. 168.
  53. ^ a b Pryke 2017, pp. 140–159.
  54. ^ a b Dalley 1989, pp. 81–82.
  55. ^ a b c Fontenrose 1980, pp. 168–169.
  56. ^ a b c d e Dalley 1989, p. 82.
  57. ^ a b c d due east Fontenrose 1980, p. 169.
  58. ^ George 2003b, p. 88.
  59. ^ Dalley 1989, p. 82-83.
  60. ^ a b c d e f g h i j one thousand l m north Fontenrose 1980, p. 171.
  61. ^ a b c d e f Tigay 2002, pp. 26–27.
  62. ^ a b Tigay 2002, p. 26.
  63. ^ a b c d e f thousand h i j yard 50 m n o p q r southward t Black & Light-green 1992, p. 91.
  64. ^ a b c d Anderson 2000, pp. 127–128.
  65. ^ Possehl, Gregory 50. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. p. 146. ISBN9780759116429.
  66. ^ Kosambi, Damodar Dharmanand (1975). An Introduction to the Study of Indian History. Pop Prakashan. p. 64. ISBN978-8171540389.
  67. ^ Due west 1997, pp. 334–402.
  68. ^ Burkert 2005, pp. 297–301.
  69. ^ Powell 2012, pp. 338–339.
  70. ^ a b Burkert 2005, pp. 299–300.
  71. ^ a b c d due east Anderson 2000, p. 127.
  72. ^ Burkert 2005, pp. 299–301.
  73. ^ a b George 2003b, p. 60.
  74. ^ Burkert 2005, p. 295.
  75. ^ Burkert, Walter (1992). The Orientalizing Revolution. p. 33, note 32.
  76. ^ George 2003b, p. 61.
  77. ^ Tigay. The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic. p. 252.
  78. ^ a b c d Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 1–25.
  79. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, pp. twenty–28.
  80. ^ Rybka 2011, p. 257.
  81. ^ a b c d e f 1000 h i j m 50 m northward o p q r s Ziolkowski 2011.
  82. ^ Smith, George (1872) [3 December 1872]. "The Chaldean Account of the Drench". Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, Volumes 1–2. Vol. 2. London: Order of Biblical Archæology. pp. 213–214. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
  83. ^ Jeremias, Alfred (1891). Izdubar-Nimrod, eine altbabylonische Heldensage (in German). Leipzig, Teubner. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
  84. ^ a b c d e Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 23–25.
  85. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 28–29.
  86. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 23–25, 28–29.
  87. ^ a b c d Ziolkowski 2012, p. 25.
  88. ^ a b Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 20–21.
  89. ^ a b c d e f k h Ziolkowski 2012, p. 21.
  90. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 22–23.
  91. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, p. 23.
  92. ^ a b c d due east f g Ziolkowski 2012, p. 26.
  93. ^ a b c d Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 26–27.
  94. ^ a b Ziolkowski 2012, p. 27.
  95. ^ a b c Ziolkowski 2012, p. 28.
  96. ^ Freud, Sigmund, William McGuire, Ralph Manheim, R. F. C. Hull, Alan McGlashan, and C. G. Jung. Freud-Jung Letters: The Correspondence betwixt Sigmund Freud and C.One thousand. Jung. Princeton, N.J: Princeton Academy Press, 1994, at 199.
  97. ^ a b c Ziolkowski 2012, p. 29.
  98. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 29–thirty.
  99. ^ a b c d Ziolkowski 2012, p. thirty.
  100. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, p. xii.
  101. ^ a b Rock 2012.
  102. ^ Ziolkowski 2012, pp. xii–thirteen.
  103. ^ a b c Damrosch 2006, p. 254.
  104. ^ Damrosch 2006, pp. 254–255.
  105. ^ a b c d Damrosch 2006, p. 255.
  106. ^ Damrosch 2006, pp. 254–257.
  107. ^ Damrosch 2006, p. 257.
  108. ^ Damrosch 2006, pp. 259–260.
  109. ^ Damrosch 2006, p. 260.
  110. ^ a b c Ackerman 2005, p. 82.
  111. ^ Haggerty, George (2013). Encyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures. Routledge. p. 929. ISBN978-one-135-58513-6 . Retrieved 19 March 2020.
  112. ^ Dynes, Wayne R. (2016). Encyclopedia of Homosexuality: Volume I. Routledge. p. 479. ISBN978-1317368151 . Retrieved 19 March 2020.

Bibliography [edit]

  • Ackerman, Susan (2005), When Heroes Love: The Ambiguity of Eros in the Stories of Gilgamesh and David, New York City, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN978-0-231-50725-7
  • Anderson, Graham (2000), Fairytale in the Ancient World, New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge, pp. 127–131, ISBN978-0-415-23702-4
  • Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992), Gods, Demons and Symbols of Aboriginal Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary, Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, pp. 166–168, ISBN978-0-7141-1705-eight
  • Burkert, Walter (2005), "Affiliate Twenty: Near Eastern Connections", in Foley, John Miles (ed.), A Companion to Ancient Ballsy, New York City, New York and London, England: Blackwell Publishing, ISBN978-i-4051-0524-eight
  • Dalley, Stephanie (1989), Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-nineteen-283589-5
  • Damrosch, David (2006), The Cached Volume: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Dandy Epic of Gilgamesh, New York City, New York: Henry Holt and Visitor, ISBN978-0-8050-8029-2
  • Delorme, Jean (1981) [1964], "The Ancient World", in Dunan, Marcel; Bowle, John (eds.), The Larousse Encyclopedia of Aboriginal and Medieval History, New York Metropolis, New York: Excaliber Books, ISBN978-0-89673-083-0
  • Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy (1980) [1959], Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, Berkeley, California, Los Angeles, California, and London, England: The University of California Printing, ISBN978-0-520-04106-6
  • George, Andrew R. (2003a) [1999, 2000], The Ballsy of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian, Penguin Classics (Third ed.), London: Penguin Books, ISBN978-0-14-044919-8, OCLC 901129328
  • George, Andrew R. (2003b), The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts, vol. one, Oxford University Printing
  • Kramer, Samuel Noah (1961), Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.: Revised Edition, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN978-0-8122-1047-7
  • Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963), The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Chicago, Illinois: Academy of Chicago Printing, ISBN978-0-226-45238-eight
  • Marker, Joshua J. (29 March 2018), "Gilgamesh", World History Encyclopedia
  • Powell, Barry B. (2012) [2004], "Gilgamesh: Heroic Myth", Classical Myth (Seventh ed.), London, England: Pearson, pp. 336–350, ISBN978-0-205-17607-6
  • Pryke, Louise G. (2017), Ishtar, New York Metropolis, New York and London, England: Routledge, ISBN978-ane-315-71632-ix
  • Rybka, F. James (2011), "The Epic of Gilgamesh", Bohuslav Martinu: The Coercion to Compose, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN978-0-8108-7762-7
  • Tigay, Jeffrey H. (2002) [1982], The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic, Wauconda, Illinois: Bolchazzy-Carucci Publishers, Inc., ISBN978-0-86516-546-5
  • Rock, D. (2012), "The Epic of Gilgamesh: Statue brings ancient tale to life" (PDF), MUSE, no. 12/2781, p. 28, archived (PDF) from the original on 29 May 2018
  • West, Thousand. L. (1997), The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth, Oxford, England: Clarendon Printing, ISBN978-0-19-815221-7
  • Wolkstein, Diane; Kramer, Samuel Noah (1983), Inanna: Queen of Sky and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer, New York City, New York: Harper&Row Publishers, ISBN978-0-06-090854-6
  • Ziolkowski, Theodore (i Nov 2011), "Gilgamesh: An Epic Obsession", Berfrois
  • Ziolkowski, Theodore (2012), Gilgamesh amid Us: Mod Encounters with the Ancient Epic, Ithaca, New York and London, England: Cornell Academy Press, ISBN978-0-8014-5035-viii

Further reading [edit]

  • "Narratives featuring… Gilgameš". Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature . Retrieved 8 October 2017.
  • Gmirkin, Russell E (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. New York: T & T Clark International.
  • Foster, Benjamin R., ed. (2001). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Translated by Foster, Benjamin R. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN978-0-393-97516-1.
  • Hammond, D.; Jablow, A. (1987). "Gilgamesh and the Sundance Kid: the Myth of Male person Friendship". In Brod, H. (ed.). The Making of Masculinities: The New Men'southward Studies. Boston. pp. 241–258.
  • Jackson, Danny (1997). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN978-0-86516-352-2.
  • Kluger, Rivkah Sch. (1991), The Archetypal significance of Gilgamesh: a mod ancient hero, Switzerland: Daimon, ISBN978-three-85630-523-9
  • Kovacs, Maureen Gallery (trans.) (1989) [1985]. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford, California: Stanford Academy Press. ISBN978-0-8047-1711-iii.
  • Maier, John R. (2018). "Gilgamesh and the Cracking Goddess of Uruk". Suny Brockport Ebooks.
  • Mitchell, Stephen (2004). Gilgamesh: A New English Version. New York: Gratis Press. ISBN978-0-7432-6164-7.
  • Oberhuber, 1000., ed. (1977). Das Gilgamesch-Epos. Darmstadt: Wege der Forschung.
  • Parpola, Simo; Mikko Luuko; Kalle Fabritius (1997). The Standard Babylonian, Epic of Gilgamesh. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. ISBN978-9514577604.
  • Pettinato, Giovanni (1992). La saga di Gilgamesh. Milan, Italy: Rusconi Libri. ISBN978-88-18-88028-1.

External links [edit]

Regnal titles
Preceded past

Dumuzid the Fisherman

 En of Uruk
ca. 2900-2700 BCE 		Succeeded past

Ur-Nungal

howardlopead.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgamesh

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